Human Rights and Food Security

A PAPER ON: ‘Human rights and food security’ _______________________________________ PRESENTED BY: SHASHANKA KUMAR NAG LL. M- THIRD SEMESTER HIDAYATULLAH NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY RAIPUR, CHHATTISGARH Address: Shashanka Kumar Nag LL. M (Third Semester) Boys Hostel, B- Block, Room No. F-32 Hidayatullah National law University Uparwara Post, Abhanpur New Raipur – 493661 (C. G. ) Mobile: 09804513485, 08817104782 E-mail- [email  protected] com DECLARATION I declare that the work submitted by me for this seminar is a result of my own effort.I affirm that there is no plagiarism and copying, either partially or entirely, from someone else's works, without giving proper credit and acknowledgement to the source(s)/author(s). INTRODUCTION â€Å"There are people in the world so hungry, that God cannot appear to them except in the form of bread. † Mahatma Gandhi Human rights are commonly understood as â€Å"inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherent ly entitled simply because she or he is a human being. Human rights are thus conceived as universal (applicable everywhere) and egalitarian (the same for everyone). These rights may exist as natural rights or as legal rights, in both national and international law. The doctrine of human rights in international practice, within international law, global and regional institutions, in the policies of states and in the activities of non-governmental organizations, has been a cornerstone of public policy around the world.Many of the basic ideas that animated the human rights movement developed in the aftermath of the Second World War and the atrocities of The Holocaust, culminating in the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Paris by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948. The ancient world did not possess the concept of universal human rights. Ancient societies had â€Å"elaborate systems of duties†¦ conceptions of justice, political legitimacy, and human flourishing that sought to realize human dignity, flourishing, or well-being entirely independent of human rights†.The modern concept of human rights developed during the early Modern period, alongside the European secularization of Judeo-Christian ethics. The true forerunner of human rights discourse was the concept of natural rights which appeared as part of the medieval Natural law tradition that became prominent during the Enlightenment with such philosophers as John Locke, Francis Hutcheson, and Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui, and featured prominently in the political discourse of the American Revolution and the French Revolution.The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948, partly in response to the atrocities of World War II. Although the UDHR was a non-binding resolution, it is now considered by some to have acquired the force of international customary law which may be invoked in appropriate circumstances by nati onal and other judiciaries. The UDHR urges member nations to promote a number of human, civil, economic and social rights, asserting these rights as part of the â€Å"foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world. The declaration was the first international legal effort to limit the behaviour of states and press upon them duties to their citizens following the model of the rights-duty duality. The right to food, and its variations, is a human right protecting the right for people to feed themselves in dignity, implying that sufficient food is available, that people have the means to access it, and that it adequately meets the individual's dietary needs. The right to food protects the right of all human beings to be free from hunger, food insecurity and malnutrition.The right to food does not imply that governments have an obligation to hand out free food to everyone who wants it, or a right to be fed. However, if people are deprived of access to food for reasons beyond thei r control, for example, because they are in detention, in times of war or after natural disasters, the right requires the government to provide food directly. Right to Food and right to be free from hunger are the human rights which are protected under various international human rights and humanitarian laws.Right to food is explicitly mentioned in the Article 25(1) of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948; and the Article 11 of International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 1966. It is also recognised in the Convention on the Rights of the Child 1989 and the Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). Right to food of indigeneous people is implicit in the ILO Convention No-169 which is approved by 17 countries. Approximately 20 countries in the world have incorporated the Right to Food for their people. THE CONCEPT OF FOOD SECURITYWorld Development Report (1986) defined food security as â€Å"access by all people at all times to enough food for an active, healthy life. According to Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) of the UNO, â€Å"Food security exists when all people at all times have access to sufficient and nutritious food to meet the dietary needs and food preference for an active and healthy life. † Staatz (1990) defined food security as â€Å"The ability to assure, on a long term basis, that the food system provides the total population access to a timely, reliable and nutritionally adequate supply of food. Thus food security may be of short-term or sustainable. In case of short-term food security we consider food security of the present population only. But in case of sustainable food security we consider the food security not only of the present generation but also of the future generation as well. According to Swaminathan, â€Å"Sustainable food security means enough food for everyone at present plus the ability to provide enough food in future as well. † In the long-run sustainable food security is very important. ELEMENTS OF FOOD SECURITY Food security is a state of being.Like literacy or good health, food security is a state that everyone wants to enjoy. Governments have decreed that every person has an inalienable right to food. The fundamental purpose of economic activity is to ensure adequate access to food for oneself and one’s family. The primacy of food security as an objective for human activity is reflected in the frequency with which the term â€Å"food security† appears in UN declarations and NGO advocacy efforts. The World Trade Organisation (WTO) Agreement on Agriculture acknowledges the legitimacy of food security concerns.South Africa, Brazil and Norway have all enshrined the right to food in law. There are basically three principle elements of Food Security. These are: Supply: Global food production has by and large kept up with or exceeded demand over the past century. The application of new technologies to agriculture, including mechanized vehicles to till, plant and harvest crops; improved seed and breeding stock; and the use of herbicides, pesticides and inorganic fertilizers, has vastly increased productivity.At the same time , one third or more of agricultural land used to be dedicated to growing fuel (wood to burn) or feed for the animals that provide muscle for transportation and production (hay for horses and oxen). Much of that land is now available to grow food for humans instead, adding to the total overall supply. Distribution: Distribution depends on such things as markets, transportation, infrastructure, relative purchasing power and the source and nature of the supply.Where the food is traded commercially , the volume and type of food traded is related to purchasing power and the ease with which the trader can reach a market. Access: Food security is about individuals , families and communities, not about regional and national aggregates. That is why, supply is only one piece of the food security puzzle. Only rarely does a whole country face hunger or famine. Rather, when the food supply is insufficient, those with greater purchasing power get food while those without sufficient income or entitlement go hungry.CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS FOR ENSURING FOOD SECURITY In India there is a deeply rooted tradition of respect for food – it stresses the importance of growing and sharing food. Sharing or offering food is a universal tradition shared by all religious entities that have roots in the Indian soil. Accordingly, in 1950, India adopted a very progressive Constitution aimed at ensuring all its citizens social, economic and political justice, equality, and dignity. Therefore any law to be valid in Indian Territory must be within the constitutional framework.Like in many countries of the World the â€Å"The Right to Food† in Indian Constitution is not recognized as a â€Å"Fundamental Right†. Therefore, there is no constitutional m andate to have a claim over it. Regarding right to food, one has to look for relevance in Article 21 of the Constitution, entitled â€Å"Protection of life and personal liberty† and Article 47 â€Å"Duty of the state to raise the level of nutrition and the standard of living [†¦]† as well as in judicial interventions of the Supreme Court and various Acts, which have cumulatively strengthened the right to food in India.Knowing the constitutional and legislative framework in India regarding the right to food is crucial for identifying right to food violations and supporting victims in realizing their right to food. Indian Constitution Part III, Article 21 â€Å"Protection of life and personal liberty – No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except to procedure established by law. † The phrases â€Å"Protection of life† and â€Å"personal liberty† have called several times for interpretation. A series of judicial inter ventions and interpretations have deepened the normative content of this fundamental right.Indian Constitution Part IV: Directive Principles The right to food or in general the economic, social, and cultural rights are defined in Part IV of the Constitution as Directive Principles of State Policy, which are guidelines to the central and State Governments for framing laws and policies. The provisions are not enforceable by any court, but the principles laid down therein are considered as fundamental in the Governance of the country. There are several Articles under the Directive Principles offer remote relevance for the right to food, but the clearest statement regarding the right to food is provided by Article 47.Article 47:   Duty of the State to raise the level of nutrition and the standard of living and to improve public health. The State shall regard the raising of the level of nutrition and the standard of living of its people and the improvement of public health as among its primary duties and, in particular, the State shall endeavor to bring about prohibition of the consumption except for medicinal purposes of intoxicating drinks and of drugs, which are injurious to health.Putting together Article 21 and 47 and various interpretations of the Supreme Court of one can safely say that the Government of India has a constitutional obligation to take appropriate measures to ensure a dignified life with adequate food for all citizens. The right to food can be regarded as a fundamental right by virtue of interpretation. NATIONAL MEASURES TO ENSURE FOOD SECURITY There has been a continous appeal to the Government for passing a legislation on food security.The government is likely to accept most of the recommendations of Sonia Gandhi-led National Advisory Council (NAC) on the proposed food security law despite warnings that the suggestions would add to subsidy burden, increase dependence on imports and distort the country's food economy. The food ministry has s et out plans that are in line with the NAC's proposal to widen the scope of the legislation, which seeks to provide legal guarantee of subsidised grains to the poor.Several experts have warned that the NAC recommendations would force the government to substantially raise its grain procurement, which in turn would lead to a larger subsidy burden on its already stretched finances. The council had proposed legal subsidised food entitlements for at least 72% of the country's population in Phase-I by 2011-12. The NAC had also proposed legal subsidised food entitlements for 75% of the country's population, covering the ‘priority' (below the poverty line) and ‘general' (above the poverty line) households, in Phase-II by 2013-14. National Food Security Bill, 2011The government has introduced the much anticipated National Food Security Bill — a legislation aimed at shoring up the UPA's support base — in Parliament. The â€Å"landmark social legislation† will guarantee grain at extremely cheap rates to more than half of the population. Food minister KV Thomas, who introduced the bill in the Lok Sabha amid thumping of desks by Congress members led by party president Sonia Gandhi, said that it would ensure that all Indians â€Å"live a life with dignity†. The bill marks a shift in approach to the problem of food security — from the current welfare paradigm to a rights-based approach.The proposed legislation confers eligible beneficiaries the legal right to receive grain at highly subsidised prices. The National Food Security Bill, 2011, considered to be the world's largest experiment in ensuring food security to poor, has been a key project of Congress president Sonia Gandhi. The bill brings under its purview 63. 5% of the country's population —75% of rural households and 50% of urban households. The bill classifies all entitled households as â€Å"general† and â€Å"priority†. At least 46% of rural house holds and 28% of urban households would be designated as â€Å"priority†.Every person belonging to a â€Å"priority household† will be provided with 7kg of grain per month, comprising rice, wheat and coarse grain. Rice will be provided at Rs 3, wheat at Rs 2 and coarse grain at Rs 1 per kg. Others belonging to the â€Å"general category† would be entitled to not less than 3kg of grain per month at a rate not exceeding 50% of the minimum support price. Once passed, the food subsidy bill is expected to rise to Rs 95,000 crore. Initial estimates pegged the increase in subsidy at nearly Rs 28,000 crore.However, on Thursday, the government made a downward revision of the additional burden on the central government — between R 21,000 crore to R 23,000 crore. The bill's financial memorandum estimates the total annual expenditure on food subsidy under the targeted public distribution system at about Rs 79,800 crore. â€Å"The estimate of food subsidy is however dependent, among other things, upon economic cost, central issue of price of grain, number of beneficiaries covered and quantities of grain allocated and lifted, and therefore subject to change with changes in any or all of the variables affecting food subsidy,† the memorandum states.Experts maintain that the annual increase would be to the tune of Rs 27,500 crore. However, Thomas said â€Å"an additional amount of not more than about Rs 20,000-21,000 crore annually would be required by way of subsidy. † The minister argued since the food bill merges many ongoing programmes meant for women, children and the poor, there would be no additional financial burden. The total financial liability to implement the law is expected to be Rs 3. 5 lakh crore, with funds being required to raise agriculture production, create storage space and publicity.A sum of roughly Rs 1,11,000 crore would be required to boost farm output with grain requirement increasing, on account of this inter vention, from 55 million tonne to 61 million tonne annually. Thomas stressed that â€Å"this Rs 1,10,600 crore is not an additional burden. We need to invest in agriculture to boost production anyway†. The proposed law entitles every pregnant woman and lactating mother to meal free of cost during pregnancy and six months after childbirth. Cash benefits of Rs 1,000 per month to meet increased food requirements of pregnant women would be provided for the first six months of pregnancy.At Rs 1,000 per month and covering 2. 25 crore women, an expenditure of nearly Rs 13,500 crore has been estimated. This will be borne by the central government and the states. Schemes to Ensure Food Security: There are also certain central food schemes and other assistance programmes for the poor in India. These are: * Targeted Public Distribution System; * Antyodaya Anna Yojana; * Mid-day meal scheme; * Annapoorna Yojana; * Integrated Child Development Services; * National family benefit scheme; * National maternity benefit scheme; and National old age pension scheme. The Public Distribution System (PDS) Public Distribution System (PDS) is an Indian food security system. Established by the Government of India under Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food, and Public Distribution and managed jointly with state governments in India, it distributes subsidised food and non-food items to India's poor. Major commodities distributed include staple food grains, such as wheat, rice, sugar, and kerosene, through a network of Public distribution shops (PDS) established in several states across the country.Food Corporation of India, a Government-owned corporation, procures, maintain and issue food grains to the state. Distribution of food grains to poor people throughout the country are managed by state governments. As of date there are about 4. 99 lakh Fair Price Shops (FPS) across India. Annapoorna Yojana This scheme was started by the government in 1999-2000 to provide food to senior citi zens who cannot take care of themselves and are not under the targeted public distribution system (TPDS), and who have no one to take care of them in their village.This scheme would provide 10  kg of free food grains a month for the eligible senior citizens. The allocation for this scheme as off 2000-01 was Rs 100 crore. Antyodaya Anna Yojana Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) is an Indian government sponsored scheme for ten millions of the poorest families. It was launched by NDA government in December 2000. It is on the lookout for the ‘poorest of the poor' by providing them 35 kilos of rice and wheat at Rs. 2 per kg. Mid-Day Meals Scheme The Midday Meal Scheme is the popular name for school meal programme in India which started in the 1960s.It involves provision of lunch free of working days. The key objectives of the programme are: protecting children from classroom hunger, increasing school enrollment and attendance, improved socialization among children belonging to all caste s, addressing malnutrition, and social empowerment through provision of employment to women. The scheme has a long history, especially in the state of Tamil Nadu. The scheme was introduced statewide by the then Chief Minister K. Kamaraj in the 1960s and later expanded by the M. G. Ramachandran government in 1982.It has been adopted by most Indian states after a landmark direction by the Supreme Court of India on November 28, 2001. The success of this scheme is illustrated by the tremendous increase in the school participation and completion rates in Tamil Nadu. Status of the Food Schemes in India The framework of the right to food is one of the basic economic and social rights that are essential to achieve the â€Å"economic democracy† without which political democracy is , at best, incomplete. The right to food is nowhere being realized in India.The schemes introduced by the Government are well designed, yet their implementation has been poor. In India, food security exists at the macro level in terms of physical access to food. Economic access is far from satisfactory, both at the micro as well as the macro level. The statement that economic access to food is far from satisfactory is confirmed by the fact that a significant proportion of the society lives in poverty and is malnourished. This section of the society is underprivileged and has less voice. INTERNATIONAL INSTRUMENTS TO ENSURE FOOD SECURITYThe right to food imposes on all States obligations not only towards the persons living on their national territory, but also towards the populations of other States. These two sets of obligations complement one another. The right to food can only be fully realized where both ‘national’ and ‘international’ obligations are complied with. CONSTITUTION OF FAO, 1965 Preamble The Nations accepting this Constitution, being determined to promote the common welfare by furthering separate and collective action on their part for the purpos e of: raising levels of nutrition and standards of living†¦ and thus†¦ nsuring humanity's freedom from hunger. WORLD FOOD SUMMIT PLAN OF ACTION, 1996 Commitment Seven We will implement, monitor and follow-up this Plan of Action at all levels in cooperation with the international community. Objective 7. 4 To clarify the content of the right to adequate food and the fundamental right of everyone to be free from hunger, as stated in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and other relevant international and regional instruments, and to give particular attention to implementation and full and progressive realization of this right as a means of achieving food security for all.To this end, governments, in partnership with all actors of civil society, will, as appropriate: a. Make every effort to implement the provisions of Article 11 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (the Covenant) and relevant provisions of other i nternational and regional instruments; b. Urge States that are not yet Parties to the Covenant to adhere to the Covenant at the earliest possible time; c. Invite the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights to give particular attention to this Plan of Action in the framework of its activities and to continue to monitor the mplementation of the specific measures provided for in Article 11 of the Covenant; d. Invite relevant treaty bodies and appropriate specialized agencies of the UN to consider how they might contribute, within the framework of the coordinated follow-up by the UN system to the major international UN conferences and summits, including the World Conference on Human Rights, Vienna 1993, within the scope of their mandates, to the further implementation of this right; e.Invite the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, in consultation with relevant treaty bodies, and in collaboration with relevant specialized agencies and programmes of the UN system and appropri ate intergovernmental mechanisms, to better define the rights related to food in Article 11 of the Covenant and to propose ways to implement and realize these rights as a means of achieving the commitments and objectives of the World Food Summit, taking into account the possibility of formulating voluntary guidelines for food security for all. UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS, 1948Article 25 Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and his family, including food†¦ INTERNATIONAL COVENANT ON ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL RIGHTS, 1966 Article 11 1. The States Parties to the present Covenant recognize the right of everyone to an adequate standard of living for himself and his family, including adequate food.  · The States Parties will take appropriate steps to ensure the realization of this right, recognizing to this effect the essential importance of international cooperation based on free consent. 2.The States Parties to the present Covenant, recognizing the fundamental right of everyone to be free from hunger, shall take, individually and through international cooperation, the measures, including specific programmes, which are needed: a. To improve methods of production, conservation and distribution of food by making full use of technical and scientific knowledge, by disseminating knowledge of the principles of nutrition and by developing or reforming agrarian systems in such a way as to achieve the most efficient development and utilization of natural resources; b.Taking into account the problems of both food-importing and food-exporting countries, to ensure an equitable distribution of world food supplies in relation to need. Article 2 1. Each State Party to the present Covenant undertakes to take steps, individually and through international assistance and cooperation, especially economic and technical, to the maximum of its available resources, with a view to achieving progressively the fu ll realization of the rights recognized in the present Covenant by all appropriate means, including particularly the adoption of legislative measures.UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON THE RIGHTS OF THE CHILD, 1989 Article 24 1. States Parties recognize the right of the child to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health and to facilities for the treatment of illness and rehabilitation of health. States Parties shall strive to ensure that no child is deprived of his or her right of access to health care services. 2. States Parties shall pursue full implementation of this right and, in particular, shall take appropriate measures: c. o combat disease and malnutrition, including within the framework of primary health care, through, inter alia, the application of readily available technology and through the provision of adequate nutritious foods. d. to ensure that all segments of society, in particular parents and children, are informed, have access to education and are suppor ted in the use of basic knowledge of child health and nutrition. Article 27 States Parties, in accordance with national conditions and within their means†¦ shall in case of need provide material assistance and support programmes, particularly with regard to nutrition.Apart from these the Right to Food has also been recognized in many specific international instruments as varied as the 1948  Genocide Convention  (Article 2), the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees  (Articles 20 and 23),  the 1989  Convention on the Rights of the Child  (Articles 24(2)(c) and 27(3)), the 1979  Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women  (Articles 12(2)), or the 2007Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities  (Articles 25(f) and 28(1)). JUDICIAL INTERPRETATIONS 1.KISHEN PATTNAYAK VS. STATE OF ORISSA, In this petition, the petitioner wrote a letter to the Supreme Court bringing to the court’s notice the extreme pover ty of the people of Kalahandi in Orissa where hundreds were dying due to starvation and where several people were forced to sell their children. The letter prayed that the State Government should be directed to take immediate steps in order to ameliorate this miserable condition of the people of Kalahandi. This was the first case specifically taking up the issue of starvation and lack of food.In this judgement, the Supreme Court took a very pro-government approach and gave directions to take macro level measures to address the starvation problem such as implementing irrigation projects in the state so as to reduce the drought in the region, measures to ensure fair selling price of paddy and appointing of a Natural Calamities Committee. None of these measures actually directly affected the immediate needs of the petitioner, i. e. to prevent people from dying of hunger. More importantly, the Supreme Court did not recognise the specific Right to Food within this context of starvation. . PUCL VS. UNION OF INDIA, This is a landmark case relating to Right to Food and food security. This case, technically known as â€Å"PUCL vs Union of India and others (Writ Petition [Civil] No. 196 of 2001)†, is handled by an advisory group consisting of a few members from the People's Union for Civil Liberties (PUCL), Human Rights Law Network (HRLN), former support group of the RIght to Food Campaign and other active individuals in the campaign. Supreme Court hearings have been held at regular intervals since April 2001, and the case has attracted wide national and international attention.Although the judgment is still awaited, significant â€Å"interim orders† have been passed from time to time. For instance, the Supreme Court has passed orders directing the Indian government to: (1) introduce cooked mid-day meals in all primary schools, (2) provide 35 kgs of grain per month at highly subsidized prices to 15 million destitute households under the Antyodaya component of the PDS, (3) double resource allocations for Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana (India's largest rural employment programme at that time, now superseded by the Employment Guarantee Act), and (4) universalize the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS). . CHAMELI SINGH VS. STATE OF U. P. , In this case, it was held that right to life guaranteed in any civilized society implies the right to food, water, decent environment, education, medical care and shelter. The method in which the constitutional social rights or the DPSP have been enforced or made justifiable by the Supreme Court has been through an expansion of the existing fundamental rights, particularly the Right to Life guaranteed in Article 21. CONCLUSION Starvation deaths and high prevalence of hunger clearly show that India needs to wake up.The judiciary cannot monitor the implementation of the schemes forever. The government needs to review policy from time to time and take corrective measures for effective implementa tion of different schemes and programmes, establish effective mechanisms of accountability and ensure the right to food for all. As the problem of food insecurity relates to both the demand and supply of food, a solution could be to empower people towards greater purchasing power, as well as addressing the inadequacy of the distribution system, and checking corruption and leakages.Awareness among the people with regard to their right to food can escalate the process of equitable distribution and thus help to realize the right to food for all citizens. The right to food is not just a basic human right, it is also a basic human need. It essentially requires the state to ensure that at least people do not starve. Implementation of the right to food does not imply that impossible efforts be undertaken by the states. The obligation to protect and respect the people compels the state to implement the right to food effectively, without recourse to extensive financial means. — Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€œ 2 ]. Food Crisis and Sustainable Food Security in India by Jaydeb Sarkhel [ 3 ]. Right to Food- Reforms and Approaches, 2007, The Icfai University Press, pp5-6 [ 4 ]. Dev, S. M, and R Evenson (2003) ‘Rural Development in India:Rural, Non-farm and mitigation’ SCID Working Paper No. 187. [ 5 ]. See available at http://socialissuesindia. wordpress. com/2010/08/05/human-rights-to-food-in-indian-constitution/ [ 6 ]. See available at http://articles. economictimes. indiatimes. com/2011-05-23/news/29574365_1_nac-recommendations-food-security-law-food-entitlements [ 7 ]. See available at http://articles. economictimes. ndiatimes. com/2011-12-23/news/30550903_1_food-subsidy-national-food-security-bill-grain [ 8 ]. Right to Food- Reforms and Approaches, 2007, The Icfai University Press, p. 230 [ 9 ]. As amended in 1965. [ 10 ]. Adopted by the World Food Summit, Rome, 13 to 17 November 1996. FAO. 1997. Report of the World Food Summit, Part One. Rome [ 11 ]. Adopted by the General Assembly on 10 December 1948. UN doc. A/811. [ 12 ]. General Assembly Resolution 2200 A (XXI), Annex, of 16 December 1966. [ 13 ]. General Assembly Resolution 44/25, Annex, of 20 November 1989. [ 14 ]. AIR 1989 SC 677. [ 15 ]. 2001. [ 16 ]. (1996) 2 SCC 549.

Counseling Psychology

A fuller understanding of clients’ problems within the province of psychological counseling involves not only the cogency of the framework employed but also how it applies in practice. Mindful of the fact that there is no single intervention or explanation that can possibly apply to all cases; there is a pressing need for counseling psychologists to take into consideration the client’s point of view; that is, how the client understands, appropriates and integrates for his/herself his/her current situation.If we are to characterize the past two decades, we may say that it is noted for an increased emphasis on methodological diversity, not only in approaches but also, and more importantly, in terms of alternative research methods in counseling psychology (Goldman, 1976; Howard, 1983). In this aspect, the emergence of pragmatism allowed for diverse approaches in counseling psychology which values both objective and subjective knowledge (Hanson, 2005, p.226). Mindful of thi s significant shift in theorizing and research, this paper seeks to articulate the underpinnings of the generalist approach to counseling psychology, their problems and limitations so as to provide feasible solutions for a more pragmatic approach that is beneficial not only for the clients but for the practitioner as well. The dominant approach in the profession of counseling psychology is the generalist model of intervention.The generalist approach is essentially a problem-solving approach which operates on the assumption that as experts, psychologists know best, since they have the necessary knowledge, skills and training in handling clients’ problems. Six interrelated steps/stages are involved in the generalist intervention model: (1) assessment, (2) planning, (3) intervention, (4) evaluation, (5) termination, and (6) follow up.The essential difference between the generalist and the person-centered approach in terms of intervention is that the generalist sees the relations hip in the â€Å"expert-client† kind of way, whereas, it is not necessarily the case for the person-centered approach. The counseling psychologist who employs the person-centered approach knows the value of emphatic listening and applies it to his/her clients for this will be of great help in addressing the client’s need for positive regard from others.If the client feels comfortable with the counseling psychologist because the latter knows how to listen, then this will be of great help in boosting the client’s self-worth. The person-centered approach was developed from the client-centered approach by Carl Rogers. Regarding the impact of the person-centered approach, Krebs and Blackman (1988) wrote: â€Å"The person-centered approach has had impact on domains outside of therapy such as family life, education, leadership, conflict resolution, politics and community health.† On a preliminary note, it may be said that for Krebs and Blackman, the person-cente red approach has many interesting and fruitful applications. As was noted earlier, Roger’s person-centered therapy is a modification of his client-centered therapy, the foundation of which is a phenomenological and existential framework on construing a theory of personality. An adequate theory of personality, as Roger sees it, must take into account the core notions of (1) human nature and (2) the human condition and the reason for improving the aforementioned condition.He writes: â€Å"the core of man's nature is essentially positive† (1961, p. 73). He adopts an organismic view of the person in a positive way. It is positive in the sense that the person, as an organism, is driven by an actualizing tendency. This idea is actuallly not something new and may be compared to the ancient Greeks idea of the telos which is the Greek term for end or purpose. In Aristotle’s view, for instance, man’s telos involves the actualization of the distinctive human functio n.It is, in this direction then that human beings ought to move [that is, the actualization of the human potentials]. â€Å"The good life is a process not a state of being. It is a direction, not a destination (Rogers, 1961, p. 186)†. The Self then for Rogers, is driven by the said actualizing tendency. A fully-functioning person for Rogers is a person who is developing, or if I may use Aristotle’s word â€Å"flourishing†. The fully-functioning person flourishes, so to speak, that is, geared towards development. Development in this sense, would involve personality development.Since man’s nature, as Rogers claims, is positive then he/she will seek personality development. If the person-centered approach to counseling psychology is more appropriate in terms of producing successful outcomes, then perhaps we may consider juxtaposing such an approach with the constructivist framework. According to Neimeyer (1995) constructivism represents a meta-theory and epi stemologic stance that emphasises self-conceiving, self-organising, and proactive features of human knowing (cited in Savickas, 2000, p. 60).Moreover, by juxtaposing the person-centered approach with constructivism, both the client and the counseling psychologist may continuously review, revise and re-orient themselves with the things that they know and how they live their lives. This is to say that there is no monopoly in terms of the learning process that takes place since both the client and the counseling psychologist takes an active part in the meaning-making process. This way, psychology becomes humanistic. Rogers’ person-centered approach is of this type.Humanistic psychology, as a reaction to positivistic psychology, sheds light on important questions that matter, not only for the client and practitioner, learner and teacher. Schneider, et. al, summarized these questions as follows: â€Å"What does it mean to be fully experientially human? † and â€Å"How does that understanding illuminate the fulfilled or vital life? † (Schneider, et. al, 2001, p. xx). These questions are questions of universal concern and have been framed in different ways by different thinkers in different periods in the history of ideas.In the final analysis, we may take refuge in the thought that developing humanistic psychology brings us closer to understanding our human condition, our situatedness. In so doing, it also gives us a fuller understanding of our very own humanity. For it is by knowing who we are and where we stand can we chart the rightful path towards a just and humane society. References Goldman, L. (1976). â€Å"A Revolution in Counseling Psychology. † Journal of Counseling Psychology. 23: 543-552. Hanson, W. E. (2005). â€Å"Mixed Methods Research Designs in Counseling Psychology. † Journal of Counseling Psychology. 52: 224-235. Howard, G. S. (1983).â€Å"Toward Methodological Pluralism. † Journal of Counseling Psychology . 30: 19-21. Krebs, D. , Blackman, R. (1988). Psychology: A First Encounter. Toronto: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Rogers, C. R. (1965). â€Å"A Humanistic Conception of Man†. In R. E. Farson (ed. ) Science and Human Affairs: Science and Behavior Books, Inc. ___. (1961). On Becoming a Person. Houghton Mifflin. Savickas, M. L. (2000). â€Å"Renovating the Psychology of Careers for the Twenty First Century. † The Future of Career. Cambridge University Press. Schneider, K. J. , et. al. (2001). The Handbook of Humanistic Psychology: Leading Edges in Theory, Research and Practice. Sage.

Judaism, Christianity, Islam Essay

The three oldest religions are Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Judaism is a one of the oldest religions known to people. Judaism is a monotheistic religion, which means that Jewish people pray to only one g-d. There weren’t too many religions like this when it originated which made Judaism very unique at the time. Moses was one of the most famous Jewish prophets. He led the Jewish people out of slavery, led them to Mount Sinai and received the Ten Commandments, a set of rules that people even today still follow. The Jews have many customs and traditions. Among them are circumcision, bar or bat mitzvah, special rituals and prayers to be said during a wedding and during death and mourning. Circumcision is the removal of the foreskin of the penis. The rite of circumcision is one of the most ancient practices of Judaism. Circumcision is done because of a Commandment by God to Abraham as it is written in the Torah and as a sign of commitment of Jewish people. The Torah is Judaism’s most important text. It contains the Five Books of Moses and is the source of the Ten Commandments. Bar or Bat mitzvah’ is when a child reaches the age of maturity, 13 for boys, and 12 for girls, and is ready to become an adult their community. At that age, a child becomes responsible for his actions and is obligated to observe the commandments. This ceremony is incorporated into an ordinary Sabbath service. During a Jewish wedding, the bride and groom get married under a special cloth called a â€Å"chuppah† or special canopy. Another tradition that is followed during a Jewish wedding is the breaking of a small glass at the end of the ceremony. This is to symbolize that even though this is a happy event, people should still remember the hardships that were faced before the Jewish people got to that place in time. During death and mourning, a Jewish family will sit â€Å"shiva† which is sitting in mourning for seven days after the death of a loved one. Some other customs are wearing a kippah on the head in a synagogue or wearing a tallit, a prayer shawl, while praying. Christianity is one of the world’s major monotheistic religions. Christianity takes the beliefs and practices very seriously. The central figure in Christianity is Jesus Christ. As the Son of God, he came to earth to teach about love and fellowship. He represents the person that all Christians must strive to be. Christians believe that he is the only one that ever lived on earth that can be called perfect from all worldly sins. The important thing to understand was that Jesus was God. He was here on earth to teach of God’s plan for all of humanity and to save the people of the world from their transgressions. In Christianity, God is almighty and rules over all of heaven and earth. He is the one that created the earth and one day will cast judgment over the entire earth. Christians understand that through Jesus Christ, people can be saved from this judgment. By believing that Jesus Christ is Lord and Savior, the Spirit of God is exists in all believers, and that God is almighty in power. A person can be saved from this judgment. Christians believe in heaven and hell. Heaven is the place where believers would enjoy the presence of God and other believers and freedom from suffering and sin. Hell is where unbelievers and sinners are punished for their sins committed during the course of their lives. Baptism is one of the most important sacraments in Christianity. It involves application of or immersion in water, a blessing, and the pronouncement, â€Å"I baptize you in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. † Most Christian churches baptize both infants and adults, but some believe that baptism is only rightly performed on adults. Views of baptism vary, but common views of the rituals include: it grants or symbolizes salvation, commemorates Christ’s death and resurrection, fulfills the command of Jesus to baptize, cleanses away sins, confers grace, and publicly expresses one’s faith. Christianity also teaches about the importance of attending Holy Mass. It’s important for Christians to keep their Sabbath according to the commandments. It is observed on the seventh day which usually falls on a Sunday or Saturday and is considered a weekly day of rest from work. The day is spent fasting and praying and attending Holy Mass. At Mass, followers are taught about the teachings in the bible through scripture readings. The celebration of Mass would conclude with the sharing of communion. Communion represents the Passover that Jesus celebrated with his twelve disciples on the eve of His death. It is an integral part of Christian worship. It causes Christians to remember the Lord’s death and resurrection and to look for His glorious return in the future. Holidays, feasts and fasts are a significant part of Christian religious practice. The feast days celebrate joyous and sorrowful historical events such as the birth, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ, while the fast days provide a special opportunity to focus on self-reflection, self-discipline and repentance. Christmas is the celebration of the birth of Jesus Christ. Lent starts on Ash Wednesday and it runs for forty days. During the forty days Christians fast and pray which represents the forty days Jesus spent in the wilderness fasting and praying. Lent is followed by Easter which represents the return of Jesus from the wilderness. Easter starts from Palm Sunday. His death and resurrection is observed during Easter. Special Services are kept in the church during this week and ends with Easter Sunday, the day that Jesus rose from the dead. Islam is a simple and practical religion. It has established, clear, and easily understandable beliefs and laws that any follower or student of the religion can easily understand. Islam affirms belief in a decent, civilized society. Islam also does not demand impossible goodness of its followers, but it recognizes that all human beings make mistakes and sin. No one is exempt. Islam preaches peace, mercy, justice, tolerance, equality, love, truth, forgiveness, patience, morality, sincerity and righteousness. Islam is the religion that preaches the Oneness of God, the Oneness of mankind and the Oneness of the Message. Muslims believe that there is only one supreme God, Allah. In Islam to believe in Allah is not only to believe in Allah’s existence but also to believe in all Allah’s attributions, to worship Allah alone, and to obey all Allah’s commands. Islam teaches about the five pillars: Shahada, Salah, Seyam, Zakat and Hajj. Shahada is the verbal commitment and pledge that there is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is the messenger of Allah. It is the duty of every Muslim, male and female, after reaching the age of puberty, to perform five Salats or prayers at specific times during the day and night. These five specific times are: – Dawn, Noon, Afternoon, Sunset, and Night. A ritual called Wudu, which is the cleaning several parts of the body with water, is a prerequisite to Salat. Fasting during the month of Ramadan, the ninth month of the lunar calendar, is from sun up to sun down only and is an obligation on every healthy adult Muslim, male or female. Fasting is total abstinence from eating, drinking, smoking, gum chewing, intimate relations, and taking anything into the body. If a person is ill and needs to take medication, he/she cannot fast. Fasting is also a time to discipline one’s self from bad behaviors, such as; arguing and saying mean things. Those who are ill or unable to fast for health or reasons of age are exempt from fasting. However, they should feel the poor one meal for every day they miss of fasting. Women who are pregnant, menstruating, or nursing, or any who are traveling, are also exempt from fasting. However, when their situation changes, they make up the days of fasting or feed the poor one meal for each day of fasting they missed. Zakat is an annual obligatory charity on every Muslim, male or female, who possesses over the last year money or property that exceeds their minimum needs. The requirement is 2. 5% of one’s excess wealth. The performance of the pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia is required once in a lifetime of every Muslim, if financially able, as well as physically able. Hajj begins every year during the month of Dul Hejja. Dul Hejja is the 12th month of the Islamic calendar year. The Hajj is a spiritual journey where a Muslim forgets all worldly things and devotes his/her attention and time to Allah alone. Islam looks at the woman as an equal, mature and capable partner of a man, without whom a family cannot exist and teaches that men and women are all the creation of Allah, existing on a level of equal worth and value. In some societies women are treated according to ancestral customs and tribal tradition, but in Islam they are treated with full respect and honor. Islam preserves women’s honor and dignity, and requires that she must be treated with respect and honor. Her femininity should not be exploited in any way, rather she is to be regarded and treated as human individual whose sexuality does not enter into her relationship with any person other than her husband. In Islam marriage cannot take place unless the female freely agrees to it and a dowry is given to her. Islam puts priorities for the husbands and wives. The responsibility for providing for the family is on the husband, while the responsibility to care for the house and raising the children is on the wife. These are the main priorities, but cooperation between the husband and the wife is required and highly recommended.

Software Development Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Software Development - Coursework Example The use case diagram shall indicate the activities and duties carried out by different individuals involved in the operations of the company. All the actors presented within the use case diagram shall have functions associated with them, and linking them to the rest of the actors within the use case diagram. The class diagram on the other hand shows the different levels of all the actors involved within the framework of the use case diagram. The use case diagram presents a list of all actors involved in the operations of the company, while the class diagram classifies the different users involved. The use case diagram presents the various functions performed by different actors within the diagram. Following the identification of these functions, the class diagram shall present a detailed explanation of the categories present within the class diagram. The members present within the class diagram shall have class level attached to their identity to classify the categories dividing the members. The use case diagram presents the recipients of the donations as the last actors within the context of the use case. The interaction of these actors shall only occur between the members presenting them with the donation. Within the class diagram, however, the individuals presenting the donations and the activity coordinators shall form part of the donor-recipient association. ... Since majority of the functions seek to focus on the donors, the central actors in the use case diagram form the association of the donor and the recipient. The associations of the donor and recipient shall be presented as binary association, facilitated through other people not benefiting from the association. Donors shall form part of the public class with the name of donors forming the next class of private level. Classified information contained in the class diagram shall include but not limited to the donations offered by the donors onto the organisations. This class would be classified as the protected class by the system enabling the storage of information contained in this class for future reference. Retrieving of particulars regarding the donations offered by each donor remains the function of few individuals, with the necessary authority to perform these functions. The donors should be able to check the information regarding their previous donations to the organisation. Thi s information remains crucial for the donors who need to trace their donations before offering others. Following the donations, the donor could be able to retrieve information regarding the loyalty point earned from the donations made. Accessing this information could also present the opportunity for donor to present their pledges. The use case diagram should present description of the actors who should be making follow-ups on the status of pledges. This would ensure that the status of the pledges made by donors remains updated, as the information could assist the coordinators in allocating donations to needy recipients. Such information would also play a significant role in ensuring the donations arrive at the required destinations on timely basis. A major disadvantage of the

Qualitative research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Qualitative - Research Paper Example In such context, time has come to shed light on different fundamental aspects of qualitative research in order to highlight its importance among business researchers. Hence, in this research paper, the researcher will try to highlight fundamental concept behind qualitative research and also will criticize the research methodology. Conceptual Base Research scholars such as Saunders, Lewis and Thornhil (2007 and 2009), Creswell (2009) and Gray (2009) pointed out that it is very difficult to decipher the meaning of the term â€Å"qualitative research† due to the fact that the meaning of the term relatively varies from stakeholder to stakeholder. Creswell (2009) stated that qualitative research is better for addressing social contextual or philosophical problems while Gray (2009) argued that interpretation of a particular phenomenon can be given by qualitative research. ... Qualitative research is composed of following concepts; Qualitative research deals with experience, opinion of individuals and in most of the cases, these opinions are subjective in nature. Qualitative research never tries to manipulate the occurrence of social phenomenon and research elements are allowed to behave in natural environment. Qualitative research tries to account all the research variables rather trying to collect data from small samples. Qualitative research is used in order to develop new theories which can help individuals to understand the social world hence qualitative research methods are inductive in nature. One to one contact with respondents is primary criteria for data collection in qualitative manner and researcher has to meet each respondent personally in order to conduct interviews, focus group interviews etc. Ontological perspectives of respondents are better served with qualitative research or it can be said that researchers got the chance to know the pers onal thinking of the respondents while doing qualitative research (Bryman & Bell, 2003; Davies, 2007). Condition for Qualitative Research It is evident from the research works of Robson (2011) and Sekaran & Bougie (2009) that selection of qualitative research method depends on the nature of the research problems. A research problem has to posses following criterions in order to be qualified as qualitative research problem. Table 1: Criteria for Selection of Qualitative Research Subjective The research problem can only be understood by going through the personal opinion of each respondent. For example: Role of technology in your life. Holistic The research problem cannot be addressed without considering effect of all the social variables. For example: Role of a

Methods for Establishing Component Priorities Assignment

Methods for Establishing Component Priorities - Assignment Example On the other hand, BIA scenarios and components also form an important way of establishing component priorities during business impact analysis (Roebuck, 2011). For example, an analysis of what happens in different scenarios may be used to provide essential data on the nature of threats faced and the possible impacts or scenarios in the event of an emergency such as data security lapse. Financial and service impact of components not being available is another aspect of business impact analysis that can also be used as a method of establishing component priorities. This is particularly because the financial and service impact analysis can provide details and information related to the potential financial consequences or monetary impacts of a given component. Lastly, recovery time frameworks are critically significant in addressing the recovery time requirements including the maximum time that the business can tolerate when certain business functions are absent, in order to help the coordinators in the identification of the most critical, short term, medium term as well as long-term intervention measures that need to be undertaken. Business enterprises revisit the common business operations and processes while developing business impact analyses. At the initial stage, the business first discusses the critical business operations through the creation of a set constituting every operational area of the business together with the SME associated with each area (Barnes, 2001). The role of the SMEs is to brainstorm then generate a set of questions to pose to other areas followed by a compilation of the results.  

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) - Essay Example CSR benefits the society through responsible business. In the contemporary society, global warming and sustainable living are the biggest issues that have grabbed the attention of scientists and educationalists everywhere in the world. Need is being felt of a collective effort to combat the conditions emerging as a result of global warming and excessive use of extinguishing natural resources. In these circumstances, businesses need to be very responsible and considerate about several things that are not in their individualistic interest but are of great interest to the society as a whole. CSR makes the businessmen amend their business practices in such a way that they cause maximum benefit to the society and cause minimal harm. Thus, it makes them comply with the standards of ethics and makes them display good moral conduct. In an attempt to fulfill the requirements of CSR, businessmen are trying to do everything that would make their business

Unit 13&14 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Unit 13 - Essay Example The film scenario exemplified Andrew being discriminated from undertaking his responsibilities as a lawyer upon the discovery of his affliction. Besides being unfairly and unjustly prejudiced towards his condition, the case affected senior management, who wrongfully dismissed him, and society, in general, who scorned people afflicted with the disease. The lawyer, who Andrew initially approached to defend him, Joe Miller, played by Denzel Washington, was first apprehensive to take the case given the sensitivity of the issues. As it turned out, the court ruled in favor of Andrew and ordered the firm to award him for damages for wrongful dismissal. It is fortunate for Beckett to have been remunerated for the discrimination case filed in court. According to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (2008) â€Å"proving a discrimination claim is inherently difficult, since the elements of proof are generally in the hands of the defendant, i.e. the employer† (5). Most victims choose to ignore the matter of filing appropriate cases due to the costs involved in pursuing discrimination cases. Regular-average-everyday Americans can make a profound difference to transform this country by acts of random kindness to others. With no thought of reward, the Good Samaritan in the Bible stops to help a man who has been beaten and robbed. That is the essence of an altruistic act: unselfishly giving help when it is needed, no strings attached. If each and every American believes in simple, unselfish acts, then each would be instrumental in making this nation a more conscientious one. Most men do some thing or behave in a certain way because we expect to get a reward for doing so. Naturally, one does not do something because the cost of doing it would be great. The leadership model that must be manifested in contemporary societies should assist in transforming the society through focusing on encouraging others

Purchase decision of Pevensey PLC among four options of machinery Essay

Purchase decision of Pevensey PLC among four options of machinery - Essay Example In this paper two methods for analysis of the investment decision are adopted. These methods include discounted and non-discounted cash flow analysis. The reason for choosing these particular methods is that they are strictly numerical and objective. The solution given by these methods cannot be argued against and can be easily defended if questions are raised pertaining to their legitimacy. Relevant data is also available for using the above mentioned methods of analysis. The initial costs of the four machines, their residual value at the end of their useful life and cash flow generated by the four machines is provided in the case. -Discounted Cash flow simply calculates the differential between the costs and receipts associated with each investment option for the organization. In this particular case, the investment options for the company are the four machines. The benefit of non-discounted cash flow method is ease of assessment and communication to the top management. Discounted cash flow is a modified and improved version of cash flow analysis in which timings of the cash flows are also taken into account. Under this method, value for each cash flow is discounted according to respective cost of capital of the company. This method makes more sense because contemporary organizations prefer gain cash flow as early as possible, so that this cash flow can be reinvested in the business or some other venture. Aversion to  risk is the second reason for discounting of because the distant is the date for receipt for cash; the lesser is the certainty of receiving it. An investment is viable if its net cash inflow exceeds the net outflow of cash for acquisition and maintenance of machinery (Gilchrist and Himmelberg, 1995). The cost of capital of

Philosophy of Karl Marx Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Philosophy of Karl Marx - Essay Example Requisite for Marx's conclusions is first an explanation of human nature itself. The nature of a living being is first broken down into two understandings. The first understanding is of the individual being itself, on its own. This focuses on what kind of species the being actually is, whether it is a tree, ant, bird, or a human being, and what physical attributes and needs that being needs to fulfill its own existence. This need to fulfill physical and material needs and advance existence is what Marx ultimately means when he discusses production, whether on the microcosm level of a man or animal preparing food for its survival or on the macrocosm of the political economy of a society. Therefore, the mode of production is what Marx means by what needs are to be taken care of, predicated on conditional material circumstances, and how such needs are achieved through the distribution of labors and what is exchanged for such labor. The other elemental understanding of the nature of a living being is how it advances its existence and species, or essentially how it procreates future generations. In the plant and animal kingdoms, this could merely be the sexual reproduction and procreation of offspring, or ants providing a colony for future generations of ants. In the macrocosm, this means the evolution of economic production within a society. The physical needs and attributes are the modes of production for the individual itself, and reproduction is the mode of production in whichever community or society the individual belongs. Man is a social animal in Marxist theory, which is an extension or interpretation of Aristotle's infamous axiom that man is a political animal. Whether man is a "political" or a "social" animals depends on how broadly or narrowly the two terms are interpreted, defined and overlap. But politics is in itself a social function: therefore, man is at least a social being. This part of human nature necessitates further understanding of humanity's existence. To understand man requires understanding of human societies and communities. How a society, or aggregation or community, is maintained and advanced through the production of the individuals that constitute it, and how the individuals are maintained and advanced depend on the general production of the society as a whole. Essentially, the individuals in a society contribute to it through their production or work, while simultaneously the individual's own substance is determined by the conditions of the society as an aggregate whole. The s ocial nature of man is the framework to the construction of a society. Also essential in human nature is its ability to not to be constrained by nature, that is the creation and innovation of technology. Man can thus employ nature and "add stature to themselves" in its mode of production. The advances in technology ultimately influence the course of human history and its mode of social production. Social production is essentially the aggregate total production of the entire society, and how the individuals in that society produce and how society itself influences such individual productions. Prior to civilization and defined civil societies in recorded history, man was primarily a hunter-gatherer society where

The War on drugs Essay Example for Free

The War on drugs Essay The War on drugs has been ongoing in America for over 30 years, but it hasnt been working out the way people thought it would be. Im against the the â€Å"War† on drugs. The â€Å"War† on drugs is ineffective and needs to changed. The â€Å"War† on drugs needs to be changed because it costs the government way too much money. According to Havards Jeffrey A. Miron an economist, and doctoral candidate Katherine Waldock, in the U.S alone legalizing drugs would save roughly 41. 3 billion per year in government expenditure on enforcement of prohibition (Bandow, 2011). This means that the government could save a lot of money if they would just stop the â€Å"War† on drugs. Alcohol and tobacco are more dangerous than some illegal drugs. According to Professor David Nutt of Britains Bristol University and colleagues, heroin, crack and crystal meth are deadliest to individual user, but when their wider social effects are taken into account, alcohol is the most damaging, followed by heroin and crack (Hunter, 2010). This means that more people are using alcohol than heroin or crack because of that alcohol has cause more damage to people; the governments just being hypocrites about the â€Å"War†, theyre fighting something that are less dangerous than the things that already are legal. The current drug laws promote additional crime. According to The Cato Institutes David Boaz and Timothy Lynch, addicts commit crimes to pay for a habit that would be ea sily affordable if it were legal (Bandow, 2011). This mean that people are committing crimes to get the money so they can pay for the drugs at a high price in the black market. Overall the â€Å"War† on drugs hasnt been helping people in the U.S at all. See more:  Capital budgeting essay Drug use may not be wise, and it could even cause death. However, the â€Å"War† on drugs has cause the U.S turn into a prison state, putting more Americans in prison each and everyday. According to Lisa Trei at Stanford University in 1980, about 2 million people in the United States were under some kind of criminal justice supervision. By 2000, the figure had jumped to about 6 million, the jump is largely attributed to the government’s ongoing war on drugs. The â€Å"War† is not stopping people from using drugs, just a program to watse money. If I was able to in charge of a country I would try to make drug use legal.  By having drugs legal the crime rate will drop because people can buy them legally for cheap money. I would also set an age limit on people that could use drug. This way kids will know when they grow up they will have a chance to try it, that will decrease youth drug use. Lastly, I would set a limit on how much people could buy. By setting this restriction drug use wont able to harm people as much as before. These laws could help out to country.

Laser Alignment Theory Essay Example for Free

Laser Alignment Theory Essay Modern optical metrology uses precise lines and planes in space from which measurements are made. Because this method creates these features using light it has become known as optical tooling. The 35 year old historical development and current technology of laser instrumentation as used in optical tooling is discussed in detail. This includes the how the measurements are made, applications, and the technology of alignment lasers and position sensing targets developed for sensing position within a laser beam or plane. The various geometries used to make alignment measurements are discussed in detail. Applications are discussed and the challenges each poses are discussed. The challenge of long range alignment and the effect of the turbulent atmosphere on the measurement process is discussed along with methods of handling the associated errors them. WHAT IS OPTICAL TOOLING? Optical tooling is a means establishing and utilizing a line of sight (LOS) to obtain precise reference lines and reference planes from which accurate measurements are made with position sensitive targets. 1] Formerly the measurements were done by a person interpreting a scale or optical micrometer by looking through an alignment telescope; today the lines and planes are created by a laser; the measurements are digital and require no interpretation. Optical tooling uses the principle that light travels in straight lines to produce precise measurements that cannot be reached by manual or mechanical methods. Level lines can be esta blished over great distances so accurately that every point is exactly perpendicular to the force of gravity. Plumb lines can be set to a given level. Right angles can be produced quickly and precisely with auxiliary components. In the assembly, maintenance and calibration of industrial equipment or in the alignment of precision systems, one or as many as four basic questions always must be answered: is it straight, is it flat, is it plumb or is it square? A number of techniques have been developed to make these measurements; however, many of them result in inaccuracies so great that proper operation of the equipment involved will be compromised or seriously endangered. The science of optical metrology and alignment makes it possible to achieve the highest degree of accuracy in answering these four important questions. It is no longer necessary to interpret readings or to make constant adjustments and calculations. In laser alignment applications, direct, precision measurements are made rapidly and consistently. Straightness In aligning several points, a tight wire is often used as a reference line. This technique has numerous drawbacks and introduces inaccuracy. First of all, wire has weight, which causes it to sag; over long distances this sag can become considerable. In addition, wire vibrates, can bend or kink, and when stretched in the area to be measured, equipment cannot be moved around for fear of disturbing the wire reference line. Even a gentle breeze can cause the wire to move sideways a considerable amount; the aerodynamic drag on a thin wire is huge. In laser alignment, the LOS of is established by a laser beam instead of a tight wire. The invisible LOS reference has no weight, cannot sag, kink, or be disturbed, nor is it a safety hazard. It constitutes a precise, unvarying reference, determining straightness to within thousandths of an inch. Flatness In order to determine flatness a shop level and a straightedge was employed in the past. However, over large horizontal areas, the shop level must be moved from part to part. Consequently, one can only tell the degree of flatness of each individual surface upon which the level is place. Whether all objects in a large area are flat is still in doubt. Flatness over a considerable area must be assured in the erection of large machinery, surface tables and large machine tools. Conventional bubble levels simply do not offer the degree of precision required. Laser levels, a termed that has fallen into generic use, offer a way to produce a level datum over a wide area. Laser technology has overcome the many disadvantages of bubble levels and assures levelness to within a few thousandths of an inch over hundreds of feet. This high degree of levelness is accomplished by horizontally sweeping the laser beam manually or via a motor driven rotary stage. This revolving line of laser ligh t becomes a horizontal plane of sight, giving a precise horizontal reference datum, sometimes called a waterline. Squareness Perfect squareness implies that one plane forms a 90Â ° angle with another intersecting plane. When a steel square is used to test for this condition, the results can be very misleading. Such measurements rely upon the trueness of the steel square, which can vary from square to square with time. In addition, steel squares have a definite limit in their physical dimensions and consequently the testing of very large surface becomes inaccurate, slow and cumbersome. Laser alignment overcomes all these disadvantages and offers a quick and precise method for determining squareness. One method is to use a transparent penta prism in conjunction with a simple alignment laser. This optical element will split the beam from the laser into two parts; one beam passes through the prism undeviated, the other beam is reflected at a perfect 90 degree angle. This will be described in more detail later. Other systems use three independently mounted lasers that are orthogonal to each other. Plumb Classically, a plumb bob is used to establish a single vertical reference line. Of course, as vertical distances increase, the plumb bob becomes cumbersome and inaccurate. It takes a long time for the plumb bob to settle. Also, it can easily be swayed by vibration, air currents, and other disturbances which are bound to be encountered. In the laser alignment method there are several ways to produce a plumb reference; it can be a plane or a line. To form a plumb line, an alignment laser with autocollimating capability is used with a pool of almost any liquid. Autocollimation senses the angle of an external mirror by reflecting its beam back into the laser head. A position sensor, beamsplitter and lens measure the angle of the reflected beam. When the laser is adjusted such that the internal sensor reads 0 in both axes, then the laser is producing a plumb line. For example, if a heavy machine tool is being surveyed, the two reference points which determine the LOS should be located off of the machine. If for any reason the machine were to move or deflect all measurements would be in error. The two reference points should be located close enough to be convenient to use and/or out of the way of other people working in the area. Transits and alignment telescopes first made these types of measurements. But the problem with transits and telescopes is that they require a person to interpret a scale placed on the object of interest; and usually a second person is holding the scale against the object. It is a two person job that takes time and much training to accomplish successfully. It is also subject to errors. This type of alignment measurement, commonly called straightness, is the most basic of all alignment applications. The figure below shows an alignment laser source on the left whose collimated beam is striking a position sensor target on the right. The target can freely slide and make measurements of straightness of the structure to which it is attached. [pic] Another common requirement is to establish another LOS perpendicular or parallel to the original LOS. To establish a perpendicular a special prism is used: a penta prism. A penta prism has the property that rotation around its axis does not deviate the reflected beam at all; it does not have to be critically mounted. Penta prisms are often called optical squares, an appropriate term. To establish a parallel LOS to an existing LOS typically involves tooling bars if the distance is relatively short, say a meter or less. These bars are made of steel and hold electronic targets at a precise distance from a center. Using two of them with the original LOS establishes a parallel LOS. If the distance between the two LOS is large, then it can be done using the penta prism twice; the first time to turn the beam 90 degrees, followed by a certain distance, and concluded by turning the beam back 90 degrees. Care must be taken that two LOS are truly parallel; usually using a level reference datum makes the task much easier. The next alignment application involves measuring the alignment error between two different LOS datums; the typical application is to determine the lateral offset and angular error between two shafts. The shafts essentially define the two LOSs. The measurement consists of setting up the source on one shaft and parallel to it. The targets are placed on the second shaft and surveyed. Then the shafts are rotated 180 degrees and surveyed again; the difference is twice the shaft offset. If the target is placed at two axial locations and measured for offset, the difference in the offsets divided by twice the axial separation is the angular error in radians. The figure below shows a typical method to measure shaft alignment errors using a laser and target. [pic] A more sophisticated alignment application is to sweep a laser beam quickly to generate a plane of light. The advantage of this is that many targets can be aligned using one laser source. In simple straightness applications the target location is restricted to the active area of the position sensor. In swept plane alignment, the targets are using sensitive in only one dimension. A typical application to establish a level plane is to put three or more targets at the same (desired) waterline location and adjust the structure the targets are on until all targets read the same. The targets for swept plane alignment can be static, meaning they require the laser beam to be directed in to them constantly. Usually the laser beam is swept by hand by rotating a knob on the laser source. If the laser plane is moving at high speed, say once a second or faster, then the targets must capture and hold the position of the laser beam as the beam sweeps by. The problem becomes harder to accomplish at longer distance because the beam is on the detector for such a short periods of time. The figure below shows a horizontally swept level laser beam scanning by several targets placed on a machine bed.

Flexibility-security Nexus: the Concept of Flexicurity

Flexibility-security Nexus: the Concept of Flexicurity Meenakshi Shree Gautam Introduction Workers, companies, sectors of industry, national governments have usually been found facing a twofold expectation. On one side, there is a strong demand to bring more flexibility to labor markets, employment and work organization, while at same time an equally strong demand for providing security to employees, especially the vulnerable groups. Flexicurity suggests that the flexibility and security can co-exist at the same time. But increasing flexibility in the labor market can be seen with decreasing security in the labor market, because it might reflect a relaxation in the regulation of hiring and firing and in flexible forms of employment. The concept of flexicurity has been addressed at a various EU summits. In the mission of the European Union, enhancing of both flexibility and security has been considered with an aim to ensure sustainable economic growth with greater jobs and increased social cohesion. In India, when examined under the purview of the flexicurity, schemes like the MNREGA, and Unemployment Insurance Scheme on the planned extension of social security turn out to be the elements of an emerging domestically developing form of flexicurity. The analysis of the Indian labor markets in the context of flexicurity have been found to exist in the organized sector, but that too requires a clear-cut analysis of real rigidities and of security issues. Peter Auer, in his short paper on â€Å"Security in labor markets: Combining flexibility with security for decent work†, has discussed the concept and analyzed the topic of flexicurity, its importance, employment stability, country differences and convergence/ divergence in the European Union and the issues of what looms beyond flexicurity. Flexicurity: The concept and the shift from job to employment security Flexicurity is not merely a certain ‘species’ of the labor market policy/strategy but it also concerns a certain state or condition of the labor market. In the case concerning the flexicurity as a condition of the labor market, flexicurity has to be defined both as a typical form of security and as a typical form of flexibility. Flexicurity refers to the job, employment, income and ‘combination’ security that encourages and allows for enduring and high quality labor market participation and social inclusion, and at the same time provides a degree of numerical, functional and wage flexibility that allows for timely and adequate adjustment of labor markets and companies to changing conditions to ensure and enhance competitiveness and productivity. In the former generation of labor economists and the industrial relations school (for example the internal labor market â€Å"school† – Doeringer et Piore, 1971) job and employment security, were considered as related to one another in the following manner: job security was taken to be analogous to the task security. The job classification, under this system, proved to be inflexible in regards to new needs of polyvalence and multi-skilling with new types of goods and service production. And therefore, the job security rule was often replaced by employment security that guaranteed employment with the firm, but not on any particular job. This shift in the concept was seen with a shift from qualification to competence, more polyvalence and new forms of work organization creating space for more internal flexibility than before. There seems to be a trade-off between job and employment security comprising of employment and job changes. The shift from job to employment security was a shift from an internally rigid system towards a more internally flexible system that maintained employment security and long-term jobs with one company. The transition from job to employment security has been described as: Internal and external adjustments Internal adjustments are important for flexicurity because they can compensate for the missing external forms of adjustment. To illustrate this point, author has quoted the example of Germany where internal forms of adjustment are preferred to external ones. The author mentioned about the research conducted by an institute which confirmed the author’s proposition that internal adjustments are indeed used to compensate for the external forms of adjustments. Wage flexibility, important for providing cost flexibility, has been excluded from the concept of flexicurity. Internal flexibility is used both as an emergency measure at the time when job cuts come into view and as a preventive approach for eliciting more efficiency and upholding the occupation affiliation. An important question raised in the paper is whether one can balance the flexibility needs of individuals arising out of their choices and the needs of the employers. Both tend to be determining the steadiness of flexibility and security. It has been seen that in flexicurity countries, both the above mentioned aspects of the flexibility are complementary, while in the rest of the countries, there seems to be a trade-off between the two. The author has also highlighted, based on the empirical evidence that the flexible countries with moderate employment protection but bounteous protection by labor market policies do better in terms of decent jobs. This observation suggests that a certain degree of mobility, when â€Å"protected† is desirable for worker’s security and delivers better results than either â€Å"unprotected† mobility or too much employment stability. Therefore, labor market reforms that account for the need of stability, flexibility and security result in optimal outcomes. Neglecting any one of these elements, along with the social dialogue, tends to produce suboptimal results either for productivity, employment performance or workers’ security. Conclusion The author concludes by suggesting that one cannot imagine an absence of stable jobs and a total shift of security towards public unemployment and employment schemes. The author also highlights the fact that more research is needed to establish a strong link between objective and subjective data as for now, one can only conclude that maximizing of employment protection needs more than tenure in order to match objective and subjective employment security. Following common elements have been outlined by the author to achieve â€Å"in-employment flexicurity† combined with â€Å"out-of-employment flexicurity†: Employment protection through innovative employment contracts High degree of social protection by active Labor Market Policies Access to social rights since they link possibilities for temporary exit from the labor market (flexibility) with return options (security).) Complementarity between the individual and employer oriented flexibility High degree of internal flexibility in high performance work systems Effective social dialogue Developing, sustaining and improving such a system has to be complemented by a functioning social dialogue which would allow the industry and the government to bargain over possible trade-offs, accountabilities and expenses of the system. References Auer, P. (2012). â€Å"Security in labor markets: combining flexibility with security for decent work†, Economic and labor market analysis papers, ILO (International Labor Office), Geneva. Auer, P., Jha Praveen (2009). â€Å"labor market reforms in India: Barking up the wrong tree?†, The Indian Journal of Labor economics, Vol. 52, No. 1, pp. 71-81. Lerche, J. (2012). â€Å"Labor Regulations and Labor Standards in India: Decent Work?†, Global Labor Journal, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 16-27.

The Lance :: Essays Papers

The Lance The lance, a staff weapon was used during the chivalric era. The lance was mainly used during a tournament. Tournaments were held as a type of competition for knights. The tournaments served as a source of entertainment and also a means to keep knights fit and in practice. During the tournament if the lance began to break or splinter one point was scored. If the lance broke it would be replaced with a new one. If the lance broke again, the two knights would dismount horses and begin to fight with swords. The tournaments were encouraged to contain chivalric behavior and attitude. The lance was also used in warfare. At the beginning of any battle the two sides would line up and begin to charge at each other holding out a lance to knock the opposition off of their horses. The jousting was primarily done at the beginning of a battle, and then the knights would dismount and charge with swords, daggers, or axes. The lance could also the used on the ground, but not nearly as successful as it would be used on a horse. A lance was used in jousting. It was about 11 feet long with a 6-inch blade, and the blade was shaped like a leaf. It was used to throw the other knight off his horse. More armor was created after the wide use of the lance. The vamplate was created to protect the hand and arm, and breastplates to help stabilize the knight as he galloped on his horse. The lance itself is very chivalric. It's large length, and weight made it challenge for knights to fight with one. It was a challenge in itself to use a lance, and anyone who could do so with elegance was considered chivalric. It took great practice to use a lance successfully. A quintain was used as target practice for the one using the lance. As most chivalric weapons a great deal of practice was required to become successful with a lance. The chivalric era contained many weapons, but the lance truly symbolizes the chivalric era.

A Government Conspiracy Essay -- Masonic Brotherhood Conspiracy

A Government Conspiracy To most a fairy tale, to some an interesting topic of discussion, however, to a small population, 5 % to be exact, Government conspiracy does exist. How, you might ask, do I intend to prove that indeed government conspiracy is real? I do not intend to prove it. In fact I only intend to inform you of its ever growing ploy of world domination, capitalism and control and open your mind to the idea that government conspiracy is out there. Throughout history as it is known to repeat itself, I will show facts that support this â€Å"theory† and dismiss the legendary lies we have been taught to believe through a system known as memetics. Looking back into the past, our four fathers first started the conspiracy of a new one world order through a secret society known as the Masonic Brotherhood. Before the Masons there was the Illuminati who introduced their ideas into the Masonic brotherhood before being disbanded in the 1780’s. However, the illuminati did not disband but simply went underground. There are several important members of the government involved in the New World Order according to Masonic records. Not only are government personnel involved but important figures in the media with high influence as well. From George Washington, Rockefeller Industries, and even the Federal Reserve. In American History, the story is written of a German U-boat sinking an American passenger ship named The Lusitania. The story tells of a warning issued and published in American papers on May 1, 1915 stating, "Travelers intending to embark on the Atlantic voyage are reminded that a state of war exists between Germany and her allies and Great Britain and her allies; that the zone of war includes the waters adjacent to th... ...reat publications whose directors have attended our meetings and respected their promises of discretion for almost forty years." "It would have been impossible for us to develop our plan for the world if we had been subjected to the lights of publicity during those years. But, the world is now more sophisticated and prepared to march towards a world government. The supranational sovereignty of an intellectual elite and world bankers is surely preferable to the national auto-determination practiced in past centuries." ( David Rockefeller Bilderbrger Meeting, Baden, Germany 1991) Works Cited ( David Rockefeller Bilderbrger Meeting, Baden, Germany 1991) (Dr Matthew Robinson 9/11: THREATS ABOUT AIRPLANES AS WEAPONS PRIOR TO 9/11 p1 WEB) ( Bailey and Ryan, pp. 50-51. WEB) ( T. Stokes â€Å"Who Really Sunk The Lusitania† Scribd.com pg1 WEB)

Money and Power Dont Bring Happiness Essay -- Happiness Essays

Abstract Do people who live in more developed and wealthier countries find more happiness than people in lesser developed countries? This paper analyzes the results of happiness between two sets of countries that fall on opposite sides of the industrialization and democratization scale. The results show that people between the two sets of countries are equally happy. It also shows that people in both sets of countries also are equally likely to be happy when finding things like family or friends important. As it turns out, happiness has little to do with GDP or wealth income of one’s country. In the second part of the study, happiness does not change much as a country industrializes. The author explores the point to industrialization and democratizing given one of the main goals of government should be happiness of their people. Review of the Literature It is a generally accepted idea that when countries industrialize, they improve living conditions for everyone in the country most importantly the rural poor. Britian was the first country to industrialize over a century ago, now each country that wishes to follow Britian’s example must use more state intervention. Resources and workers must be moved from rural agriculture to urban life in factories. This theory is known as the Gerschenkronian collective dillema and suggests that countries should want to industrialize and do it quickly with government coercion. Along with more state intervention in the domestic markets, industrialization also includes opening up a countries markets to international free trade. Theories introduced centuries ago by Adam Smith and other neoclassical economists state that countries will be able to increase wealth and gross do... ... of Gandhi. This speech reflects some of the views of Gandhi, himself, such as the lack of need for material items. Overall, this speech illuminates the idea that people must find inner happiness and rely less of the material world around them to get by. http://www.prosperity.com/#!/ (prosperity index) This post talks about the different countries they have analyzed throughout the years. They use a â€Å"prosperity index† by Legatum Institute to figure out and rank the different countries in the world. This index ranks countries according to economy, health, personal freedom and etc. The index shows that small countries like (Norway) can be small and not so developed but have very happy people. It goes to show that happiness is not attained by working more hours but by having more hours with close friends and family. http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/wvs.jsp

Difference Between Men And Women

For centuries, the differences between men and women were socially defined through a lens of sexism, in which men assumed to be superior over women. The vision of equality between the sexes has narrowed the possibilities for discovery of what truly exists within a man and women. The world would be less interesting when everything is the same. Today none of us would argue that men and women are physically different, but they differ emotionally, and mentally. The physical differences are rather obvious and most of these can be seen and easily measured such as Weight, shape, and size.There are many physical differences that are not noticeable. Men are 3o percent stronger especially in upper body strength. On the other hand, women have greater body fat percentages because women have children. No matter how strong men are they will never be able to handle child birth. Men build muscle easily, they have thicker oilier skin, they bruise less easily, and have a lower ability of injuries to t heir extremities. Men and women have different hormone levels such as testosterone, while women have a higher concentration of estrogens.Testosterone is a male sex hormone that is important for sexual and reproductive development. Estrogen is a hormone in women that shapes the characteristic of the body. I can go on and on with many physical differences but lastly men have larger hearts, brains, and lungs. Since their hearts are bigger that means that they are filled with love, care and affection. Their brains are 11-12 percent bigger than women’s so this should mean that they are the smartest creatures ever. Even though they have big hearts and a bigger brain sadly it has nothing to do with intelligence or their emotions.It is for producing more red blood cells because of their muscle mass. Emotionally men and women have a significant difference. I am not a man so I cannot speak for men when I say that men need trust. A man feels trusted when a woman’s attitude is ope n, to trust a man is to believe in his abilities and intentions. Women needs caring, when a man shows interest in a woman’s feelings she feels loved and cared for and becomes more open. Men needs acceptance, men are not very comfortable of being changed. If a woman lovingly receives a man without trying to change him he feels accepted.Women need understanding, when a man listens without judgment, but with empathy she feels heard and understood. When a woman’s need to be heard and understood is fulfilled it is easier for her to accept his needs. A man needs appreciation, when a woman acknowledges the little things her man has done for her he feels appreciated. When he feels appreciated he is encouraged to do more. Now I understand that some guys here are not going to agree with me nor the girls, and I respect that because I can only speak for myself.Mentally men and women differ drastically. Women are better at communicating because of the frontal lobe which is responsi ble for problem solving. The limbic cortex of the female brain is larger than the male counterparts, this provides women with an advantage in problem solving and emotionally. Remember earlier I said that men have bigger brains? Well, the male brain contains more grey matter whereas a female brain contains more white matter. White matter basically increases thoughts more rapidly than males.Females speak from a more emotional perspective. It is due to chemistry and social learning. There is a stereotypical idea that females within the general public that has made it easier for women to openly cry, sympathize, laugh etc without feeling judged or vulnerable like male counterpart might feel in a similar situation. For instance, a man and a woman go on a movie date and there is a sad movie playing; and the woman starts to cry. The man might want to cry to but instead he hides it due to embarrassment. (I don’t know why)Everyone understands that there are plenty of differences betwee n men and women but we all have to realize that God created all of us for a reason. Men and women are totally different but it is more exciting to have varieties rather than everything being the same. As it is written in the Bible men cannot live without women. We need to all face the facts that men and women are different but we should all be treated equally. Guys have you ever had this said to you? You do this like a girl or you do that like a girl.It is not only offensive to guys, but it is offensive to girls as well. Now, girls do handle situations differently. I admit we can get a little feisty. For instance someone throws something at Jessie, Jessie would throw the object back and then proceeds in offensive word play. The same situation applies to Sammie he throws the object back and then laughs it off then it becomes a fun game rather than an unnecessary fight. Men and women do things differently but we still need to respect each other because we are all God’s children .

Blood Brothers Essay

It feels like he is this omnipotent being and he is deciding the fate of all the children. It’s almost as if he is the emotion that everyone wants to avoid but no one is doing anything about it, Mrs Johnstone carries on in her life pretending that she isn’t superstitious and although there is this undying voice inside her saying that she is and one day Mickey and Edward are going to die. This voice is what the Narrator is, he is fate and Mrs Johnstone chooses to ignore it but she knows you can’t change fate. On the stage he is always there, he is omnipresent, this constant being there shows that the thoughts of Mrs Johnstone are still there and that nothing you do will undo the past. Mrs Johnstone has to live with the decision of what she has done but she chooses to ignore it. The Narrator can be viewed upon as the referee of life (or as you might ‘God’), you know the rules and now you have to follow the rules (the superstition) but Mrs Johnstone turns a blind eye, forgets about it and pretends that it will never happen, but she must follow the rules. Prejudice Prejudice is a fixed opinion, which is not based on a fair examination of the facts. The picture with the black and white boy and the so-called ‘magical stick’ (simply because we don’t know what it is) is a base of which many different scenes can be produced and discussions can take place. The children come across as innocent, possibly that they have no reason to be prejudice against each other but through past happenings (lynching in America and the KKK) their parents want them to be prejudice to supposable keep them from harm. It shows that possibly prejudice to this degree is only set in motion if something terrible happens by a specific ‘type’ of people (the KKK killing black people) and that when it comes down to it the people themselves are not the same as the people who have done this feat. Suppose that everyone in the world was white and everyone was the same religion, height, age etc. but despite this the KKK would exist and the lynching would still go on; people would find another way to view differences, where you live or even your surname. My point is that I think its human nature to take a dislike against different people, if you look back hundreds of years and people lived in remote places (tribes for example) and a tribe moved to join another tribe, because the new tribe is different it presents its self with a new variable, that it could jeopardise the well-being of the original tribe. So this original tribe will try and eliminate this variable (driving them away or even killing them) to stop it from harming their own tribe. You can translate this to the black people moving into America and the white people living there trying to protect them by getting rid of any new possible threat. Mickey and Edwards first meeting and an evaluation of two groups Francis (me), Jamie and Barry   There was a nice mime of the gun from me as I sat on the apron of the stage. It was good because the gun I made in my hands by pointing one of my fingers out and it looked as though it was a gun because it took the form of a gun well. We did some good work even though we had only one lesson to get it done in. It was good work because we learnt most of our words and got the blocking sorted. The giggling after the ‘F word’ was good because it was very childish because I and Jamie looked as if we were embarrassed.   My body language was good, my arms movements were exaggerated and typical of a seven year old because that is how the act with their arms.   Even though Jamie lost his place in the play, he didn’t come out of character and got back on tracks very quickly. Very good facial and body language from all of use and especially me, me and Jamie’s facial expressions matched seven year olds expressions and Barry’s face showed that he was ‘pissed off’ and he acted as though he was the boss by talking louder and demanding respect.We could of have improved by thoroughly learning the script and concentrating more on our actions. James and Richard   Both of them learnt the script and did not lose their place or forget their words. They didn’t fully use their hand movement so they couldn’t act exactly as a seven year old would because people at that age use their hands.   When they said the ‘F word’ they looked as though they were very excited and embarrassed. They looked like this because they acted as young people would when they heard a naughty word; they did this by having wide eyes and giggling immensely.   When James’ said ‘pissed off’ it was well done because it sounded as though he really was pissed off. Only on one incident did James forget his words, but nether the less he still kept in character and sorted it out by referring to the script. What I have learnt about the class differences between the twins I have learnt that Edward’s class is most probably upper class; either this or they are very rich middle class people. I have learnt that Mrs and Mr Lyons have a highly etiquette way of living, for example they do not allow swearing of any form whereas with Mrs Johnstone’s way of living swearing occurs frequently. Mickey’s class is probably lower class, which is they do not have a large amount of money or income. She has many children and works very hard for Mrs Lyons but still does not get a large income. I have learnt that it’s most likely that Mrs Johnstone’s family expresses their emotions more often than Mrs Lyon’s family; this could be because Mrs Johnstone does not have as much material possessions compared with Mrs Lyons so she spends more time in her free time with her kids. On the contrast Mrs Lyons has many material possessions so she doesn’t spend that much time with Edward because he’s playing with his toys (for example). The changing attitudes between Mickey and Edward Through the play the twin’s attitude changes in aspects of their lives, for example them being blood brothers forever and the relationship between each other. When they were both seven years old they took delight in knowing that they were born on the same day, furthermore they made each other their blood brother. They were both immensely thrilled by this new bond they made and longed to be like each other. However when they grew older their views on being a blood brother changed, especially for Mickey who grows up and realises that he previous action of becoming a blood brother is child’s play. He says that ‘while no one was looking I grew up’, and I think that because of his harsh life with not much money he stops believing in the childish act and starts realizing that he has to open his eyes and stop playing games. However with Edward he hasn’t got a single worry in his life because he has lots of money a good social life and really not many initial problems at all; so because of this he still believes in this ‘blood brother’ stuff because he hasn’t grown up and found out what the world was really like. He still lives in a pampered world where anything he wants (and because he is an only child he is spoilt) he gets, he can afford to play games and Mickey can’t. Edward doesn’t realize no important a job is, ‘why†¦ why is a job so important’ because he can live off his parent income if he wants to, but Mickey knows that without a job he’ll have no money and because he mum cant afford extra school he cant get the grades to get a good job. Mickey’s attitude towards life changes the most, when he was seven he saw everything as a game and didn’t have any real problem to worry about. Although as he grows up he realises that he needs money and a steady income and him being a blood brother with Edward is just a children’s game. On the other hand Edward has gone to university, he can use his parent’s money to give him anything he wants and he hasn’t yet realised what life is really like when your throw in the deep end without any support, so because of this his attitude of being a blood brother hasn’t changed dramatically. How we acted these changes out We acted out the first time Mickey and Edward’s first meeting, this showed that they are immensely fascinated with each other and wanted to be just like each other, furthermore on top of this they are born on the same day and become blood brothers. To show further how this friendship was good I wrote a monologue showing how Edward was dumfounded with Mickey’s knowledge and who he is and that he wants to play and be friends and blood brothers forever. Later on in the play where the most time and the most dramatic difference was noticeable where they had spent the most time away form each other was when Edward got back to Mickey from university. We acted this out in a workshop and showed that Mickey was extremely livid by his job and Edward’s fortune. Edward had friends he had money and he had just come back from university and he had a great time, whereas Mickey was just working for minimal pay ‘putting together cardboard boxes’. When we see Edward and Mickey meet for the first time Mickey expresses that he hasn’t grown up and he makes him ‘sick’. Mickey has put up with so much when Edward was at university and his nerves were stretched to breaking point and as soon as the person who is most like him in the world comes home and sees that he is doing very well, he snaps mentally. I think that this is why he is forced into taking drugs. We acted this difference out by showing that Mickey was very angry and livid by the thought of Edward and that he saw him self as a failure, no job and even when he had one it was a very poor job, and Edward doing extremely well makes him feel even worse. The workshop During the workshop I learnt that gesture and hand movements are very important to express emotions and that it isn’t all through the voice. I learnt that you can use swear words, gesture and actions which provoke something in the audience but only once or twice because after a couple of times it doesn’t have the same effect that it has the first time. I learnt to know that when your on the stage it’s your stage no one else’s so you do not have to rush what you are saying because you are the one on stage and nobody is their to take it away; space between what you are saying. Also that when Mickey is angry and listing all the things that he is angry about I know that it is a good idea to rise in anger as you progress, because Mickey thinks of one thing which makes him angry then he says another and he knows that there are many things that he is angry about; so it topples on top of all the things he is angry or upset about in one frame of mind. In the workshop I learnt that you must always try your best if you want to become an actor (or any other profession) and that if you have an ambition, you should pursue it fully. The best performance When the people in our group performed I thought that Ned performed well; although there is only one criticism I can offer. His charisma on the stage is very good; he projects his voice and shows very well what the character is feeling. When he was playing Mickey and expressing how Mickey felt about his life he did it in such a way that you felt very sympathetic towards him; me must have emphasised a lot to understand what he feeling. The only criticism I can make is that when he acts as though he is upset or angry he tends to do it all the same. His acting at expressing those emotions are very good but he tends to do the same acting for different characters. I just feel that not everybody is angry or upset in the same way, there are many different ways of being angry so I think he should a larger variety of different ways of expressing different emotions.